Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC)

The purpose of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is to collect reliable and internationally comparable information about adults' cognitive skills and their underlying factors. The Survey of Adult Skills measures skills in three main areas:

• literacy (comprehension of texts and information processing);

• numeracy (quantitative reasoning and arithmetic skills);

• problem solving skills (in the first cycle: PSTRE, or Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments; in the second cycle: APS, or Adaptive Problem Solving).


The survey also collects extensive data on education, work experience, employment, training, skill utilisation, socio-emotional skills, and attitudes. This makes it possible to analyse the relationship between skills and employment, education and social factors.

The survey results are used

• for comparisons of skill levels and skill distribution in different countries;

• for monitoring national trends to study changes in skills over time;

• for policymaking to support the strategic development of education and employment, to reduce skill gaps and to promote lifelong learning.

In the survey, data are collected during face-to-face meetings. The first part is a background questionnaire completed by the interviewer while interviewing the respondent; in the second part, the respondent completes tasks independently. The background questionnaire consists of the following sections which have been largely the same in both cycles. Section K (Socio-emotional skills) was added in the second cycle.

A. Socio-demographic background. Questions regarding the respondent’s age, sex, country of birth, parents’ country of birth, and languages learned and spoken at home.

B. Education and training. Questions regarding the respondent’s formal education (highest level of education completed, field of study, etc.) and non-formal education (including training courses completed, certificates obtained, etc.).

C. Employment status and history. Questions regarding the respondent’s employment status at the time of the survey, work history, etc.

D. Current job (paid or unpaid). Questions regarding the respondent’s occupation and income, the size of the organisation, the type of employment contract, job duties, etc.

E. Most recent job (the respondent is not currently employed but has held a job within the last five years). Questions regarding the respondent’s most recent job, reasons for not working, etc.

F. Skills used by respondents who are currently employed or have been in paid employment in the past 12 months. Questions regarding the respondent’s use of literacy, numeracy, and technology skills in the workplace.

G. Skills used in daily life. Questions regarding the use of computers and other digital devices (e.g. smartphones) outside of work.

H. Work environment (respondents who are currently employed or have been in paid employment in the past 12 months). Questions about the respondent’s work practices and autonomy at the workplace; work environment, teamwork, performance reviews, etc.

I. Questions about the respondent. Questions about the respondent’s attitudes and activities, including volunteer work, life satisfaction, health, etc.

J. Background information. Questions about the respondent’s parents (including their education), partners, children, etc.

K. Socio-emotional skills. Questions about the respondent’s social and emotional characteristics, e.g. behavioural patterns, openness to new experiences, emotional stability, etc.


A new feature in the second cycle was the use of a doorstep interview – this was a short, self-administered questionnaire for respondents who had a language barrier, i.e. insufficient proficiency to complete the full questionnaire in Estonian or Russian. The doorstep interview consisted of six questions. The questions concerned the respondent’s sex, age, length of education, employment status, country of birth, and years lived in the country. In Estonia, the doorstep interview could be completed in 17 languages: English, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Finnish, German, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Turkish, Spanish, Tatar, Somali, Korean, Chinese (simplified), Arabic, Hebrew, and Punjabi.


In addition to the doorstep interview, the survey also included, for the first time, the curbside observations module which the interviewer completed upon arriving at the respondent’s home address. The module consisted of three questions about the dwelling unit and was completed by interviewers outside for all addresses, with the purpose of facilitating fieldwork. The curbside observations instrument was voluntary for participating countries – it was completed by about half of the countries, including Estonia.


After completing the background questionnaire, respondents participated in a tablet tutorial, after which the participants moved on to the locator test. Based on their performance in the locator test, respondents were routed to one of three paths for the main task section. Respondents who failed the locator completed only the tasks in the reading and numeracy components. Compared to the previous survey cycle, the assessment of the reading and numeracy components (basic skills) was more thorough, and the results were taken into account when calculating plausible values.


In the first cycle, the direct assessment (DA) included tasks assessing literacy, numeracy and/or problem-solving skills in technology-rich environments (PSTRE). In the second cycle, the DA tasks assessed literacy, numeracy and/or adaptive problem-solving skills. No respondent was given all tasks or all task types; respondents were presented with different combinations of tasks.


Based on the performance in the task section, 10 plausible values were calculated for each respondent for each measured skill using item response theory; these are denoted in the dataset as variables PVLIT1…PVLIT10, PVNUM1…PVNUM10, and PVAPS1…PVAPS10. In addition, the dataset contains variables regarding task completion time, number of actions, and so on. The names of these variables consist of a combination of letters and numbers. For more information, see page 43 of the OECD Data Analysis Manual.


For the respondent, the survey concluded with an assessment of their performance (effort and performance questions). After leaving the respondent, the interviewer completed a brief form regarding the interview (post-interview questions), such as where the interview took place, whether there were other people present besides the respondent, whether there were any interruptions or distractions during the completion of the background questionnaire or the tasks.

Classification of countries and territories;

Classification of Occupations;

Estonian Classification of Economic Activities (EMTAK) based on NACE Rev. 2,

Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS)

Not applicable

PIAAC – The Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is an international programme launched by the OECD. PIAAC involves developing methodologies for measuring skills and conducting skills assessment surveys. The PIAAC survey is conducted every ten years and covers residents aged 16–65 in the participating countries.

Reading and numeracy components – fundamental reading and numeracy skills, which include recognition of letters and numbers, the ability to read text, and simple arithmetic. In the first cycle, these skills were also referred to as basic skills.

Information processing skills – the ability to obtain, understand, process, and use information in various formats. PIAAC assesses three information processing skills: literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem-solving. Information processing skills require the presence of reading and numeracy components (basic skills).

Literacy – a combination of the ability to read a text, understand it, and draw conclusions based on it. Literacy requires the presence of the reading components (basic reading skills).

Numeracy – a person’s ability to understand and use numbers, arithmetic, and other mathematical concepts in everyday life

Adaptive problem solving – the ability to find and use information in a diverse information environment and to adapt one’s conclusions to changing circumstances. It was measured in the PIAAC 2nd cycle.

Problem-solving in technology-rich environments – the ability to use digital technology, communication tools and computer networks to obtain and evaluate information, communicate, and perform practical tasks. Tasks that measure problem-solving skills help to assess the ability to solve problems related to daily life, work, and participation in society. To solve a problem, a person must set appropriate goals, make a plan and use information that can be obtained via a computer and its networks (e.g. the internet). It was measured in the PIAAC 1st cycle.

Skill scores (plausible values) and skill levels – In the PIAAC survey, respondents completed a variety of practical tasks, based on which each respondent was assigned a plausible score on a scale of 0–500. To make the results meaningful, these are divided into up to six levels of proficiency.

Working-age population – this refers to the target population: Estonian residents aged 16–65

Item response theory (IRT) – a statistical assessment model that allows for a more accurate measurement of a person’s skills or knowledge than simply counting correct answers. It takes into account item difficulty and item discrimination to provide a reliable estimate of the respondent’s actual skill level.

Person

Permanent residents of Estonia aged 16–65, excluding persons living in institutions (care homes, prisons, etc.)

Estonia as a whole

First cycle: August 2011 – April 2012;

second cycle: September 2022 – April 2023;

register data: 2022 or 2023, depending on the variable

Not applicable

Official Statistics Act.

Estonia was invited to participate in PIAAC in a letter from the OECD received by the Ministry of Education and Research on 17 October 2008. The “PIAAC-Eesti” programme was approved on 16 February 2010 with Directive No 135 of the Minister of Education and Research. The PIAAC 2nd cycle was approved with Directive No 235 of the Minister of Education and Research of 8 June 2015. The second cycle of PIAAC is also activity no. 2.5 in the adult education programme for 2019–2022.


With regard to the first cycle of PIAAC, the Data Protection Inspectorate did not review the application submitted by the Ministry of Education and Research on 7 December 2012 because, pursuant to clause 14 (1) 2) of the Personal Data Protection Act, the Ministry of Education and Research did not require additional permission from the Data Protection Inspectorate to conduct the research.


For the second cycle of PIAAC, the Data Protection Inspectorate, pursuant to subsection 6 (5) of the Personal Data Protection Act, issued Decision No. 2.2-1/22/14 granting permission for the processing of personal data without the consent of the data subjects in the PIAAC Main Survey, according to the terms and extent specified in the application amended on 2 September 2022, taking into account the explanations provided during the application procedure.


Item 2 “Legal basis for research” in the application stipulated as follows:

1) Subsection 58 (1) of the Government of the Republic Act: The area of government of the Ministry of Education and Research shall include the planning of state education, science, archives, youth and language policy and in relation to that the organisation of the fields of pre-school, basic, general secondary, secondary vocational, higher, hobby and adult education, research and development, archival science, youth work and special youth work, and the preparation of respective draft legislation.

2) Clause 6 (2) 9 of the Republic of Estonia Education Act: The Ministry of Education and Research shall participate in the implementation of state research policy and order research projects in the field of education.

3) Subsection 5 (3) of the Statutes of the Ministry of Education and Research: Main responsibilities of the Ministry: 3) analysing the impact of policies, conducting surveys and compiling statistics.


Cooperation between the Ministry of Education and Research and Statistics Estonia regarding the two survey cycles is governed by partnership agreements signed on 1 March 2010 and on 29 December 2022, respectively. A post-survey cooperation agreement was signed on 11 February 2025, regarding the sharing of second cycle data via Statistics Estonia's research work environment and addition of register data on survey respondents.

None

Statistics Estonia's news release about the publication of PIAAC 2nd cycle results “Study: Estonian Adults Among the Best in the World in Skills, Especially in Younger Generations” was published on 10 December 2024.

The press conference introducing PIAAC 2nd cycle results was held at the Ministry of Education and research on 1 December 2004.

The episode "Eesti täiskasvanute oskused paistavad silma, aga lõhed süvenevad“ (in Estonian) of the Äripäev radio programme "Õppetund"was on air on 30 January 2025.

The ERR news portal article "Education inequality gap widening between generations in Estonia" was published on 1 February 2025.

The Õhtuleht newspaper article "KUI TARGAD ON EESTLASED? Meil on probleeme lugemisoskusega" (in Estonian) was published on 18 August 2025.

The Postimees newspaper article "Koolitajad: suurel osal töötajatest on aegunud oskused" (in Estonian) was published on 17 November 2025.

National report (in Estonian) on the PIAAC 2nd cycle in Estonia, and summary of the national report (in Estonian).

Publications on the PIAAC 1st cycle in Estonia.

More information and materials can be found on the website of the Ministry of Education and Research and on the OECD PIAAC website.

PIAAC survey data are not published in the statistical database.

Not applicable, since these survey data are not published in the statistical database.

The dissemination of data collected for the purpose of producing official statistics is guided by the requirements provided for in §§ 33, 34, 35, 36 and 38 of the Official Statistics Act.

The microdata of both PIAAC cycles in Estonia and the register data of the second cycle can be accessed via Statistics Estonia's research work environment. Information about applying for use of confidential data and the relevant terms and conditions can be found here: procedure for dissemination of confidential data for scientific purposes.

The public PIAAC survey datasets in the form of Public Use Files (PUF) can be downloaded from the OECD PIAAC database. In these files, data have been processed to ensure confidentiality, or sensitive data have been removed in accordance with each country’s confidentiality rules. The relevant variables by country are outlined in the missing variables file.


The microdata of both PIAAC cycles in Estonia and the register data of the second cycle can be accessed via Statistics Estonia's research work environment. Information about applying for use of confidential data and the relevant terms and conditions can be found here: procedure for dissemination of confidential data for scientific purposes.


In order to access personal data of special categories, the applicant must first receive approval from the Data Protection Inspectorate or the ethics committee. In the PIAAC survey, data related to health and capacity for work are deemed special categories of data.

Not applicable, since these metadata have not been published before.

PIAAC methodology documents can be found on the OECD PIAAC website in the section Methodology and manuals. The national reports (in Estonian) provide an overview of the PIAAC survey in Estonia: 1st cycle national report, 2nd cycle national report.

This statistical process is guided by the European Statistics Code of Practice.

The quality control procedures and indicators for the PIAAC survey, and assessments of the quality of the collected data, broken down by country, are described in the Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) on the OECD website:

technical report on the 1st cycle, Section 3; technical report on the 2nd cycle, Section 5.

The international Survey of Adult Skills is a probability survey using individual data. In Estonia, the sample is selected by stratified random sampling from the list of residents aged 16–65 according to the statistical population register. The sample for the first cycle (2011–2012) consisted of 13,000 individuals, of whom 7,632 responded. The sample size for the second cycle (2022–2023) was 13,750 individuals, with 6,665 of them responding.

In the second cycle questionnaire, some information was pre-filled based on register data: the year and month of birth and sex based on the personal identification code, the highest level of education according to the Estonian Education Information System (EHIS), and the job title and occupation from the employment register. During the survey, respondents either confirmed or corrected the information about them derived from registers. In the first cycle, there was no pre-filling.

To enrich the data, a database containing additional register-based variables for second cycle respondents was created following the data collection. Business-related data were obtained from the business register administered by the Ministry of Justice; education data were obtained from the Estonian Education Information System of the Ministry of Education and Research; employment, income and employer information were received from the Tax and Customs Board’s taxpayers register (MKR) and employment register; pension data were received from the Social Insurance Board’s social protection information system (SKAIS) and the pension register (EPIS) of Pensionikeskus; data on loss of capacity for work and on benefits and allowances were obtained from the Social Insurance Board’s STAR database, the social protection information system, and the Health Insurance Fund’s database (KIRST); unemployment-related data were received from the Unemployment Insurance Fund’s register of persons registered as unemployed and job seekers and of labour market services (EMPIS) and the unemployment insurance database (TKIS); data on family, place of residence and citizenship were received from Statistics Estonia's statistical population register. Data on place of residence were verified during fieldwork and updated to reflect the actual situation.

Every ten years

Before the survey begins, all individuals included in the sample are sent a notification letter explaining the purpose of the survey and detailing how the respondent will be contacted. The notification letter is sent to the respondent by email at the email address listed in the population register and also by mail to their home address.

The data are collected during face-to-face meetings. The first part of the interview consists of a background questionnaire that the interviewer completes while interviewing the respondent. In the second part, the respondent completes tasks independently. In the first cycle, the interview portion was conducted using a laptop (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing, or CAPI), and the tasks were completed on the laptop or on paper. In the second cycle, it was no longer possible to complete the tasks on paper, and a tablet computer was used (Tablet Assisted Personal Interviewing, or TAPI); additionally, a digital stylus was available for use.

The interviewing is carried out by Statistics Estonia's trained interviewers. PIAAC's Internal Case management System (iCMS) is used to manage and monitor data collection. The questionnaires have been designed for electronic completion – the interview by the interviewer, and the tasks by the respondent – on the tablet. The questionnaires (in Estonian and in Russian) are available on the OECD website: 1st cycle questionnaire, 2nd cycle questionnaire. The tasks that respondents have to complete are not made public. The sample tasks give an idea of the types of tasks used.

Data processing and database compilation for the PIAAC survey are managed by the international PIAAC consortium established by the OECD. During and after data collection, the participating countries process the raw data using software provided by the consortium and then transmit the data to the consortium’s international data centre. The data then undergo several stages of verification and processing by the consortium, which are in turn reviewed and approved by national project managers. During data processing, the consortium calculates derived variables, weights, and plausible values for the tasks. The PIAAC survey design stipulates that each respondent receives only a portion of the tasks to answer; during data processing, answers to the missing tasks are imputed for all respondents. Therefore, in the final database intended for users, solutions to all tasks are available for each respondent. International and national databases for use are then created in collaboration with experts.

More information about data processing is available in the technical report: technical report on the 1st cycle, Section 3 “Field Operations and Quality Control” and Section 4 “Sampling and Weighting”; technical report on the 2nd cycle, Section 3 “The PIAAC Database and Data Analysis Tools” and Section 5 “Quality Control and Data Preparation”.

The register data on 2nd cycle respondents were compiled by Statistics Estonia at the request of the Ministry of Education and Research. These data are based on 11 registers and refer to current/former employment, family, citizenship, origin and place of residence, education, income, capacity for work, receipt of benefits and allowances, insurance, etc.

The imputation rate shows the share of imputed values among all values. In this statistical process, the imputation rate is not calculated.

Not applicable

Not applicable